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Introduction
The Chinese conceive of a natural extension between the world of
the living and the world of spirits. The two worlds can be said to
form a homologous whole and any disruptions or changes in one
world have repercussions in the other realm. Chinese spirits are
conceived as powerful beings, capable of conferring blessings as
well as inflicting punishments. Correctly propitiated, they will
bring good fortune to the family. If the spirits are not appeased
properly they have the power to cause disasters or misfortune.
Chinese spirit-mediums are called Tangki
 , literally "child
diviners". Chinese spirit-mediumship is based on the belief that a
spiritual being, or shen
 can temporarily possess a human
body. In such a state, the tangki becomes the personification of
the shen and mediates between the human and spiritual worlds.
Human beings can then consult the spirits, seeking advice as well
as solutions to human problems.
De Groot (1892:1269) describes spirit possession in 19th century
Amoy, a southeastern province of China, as follows:
The specialists of Wu-ism, who act as
seers, soothsayers and exorcists by the power of spirits which
possess them .. engaged in processions which are organized in
times of epidemic, stripped to the waist, dancing in a frantic or
delirious state, covering themselves with blood by means of wounds
inflicted by themselves with swords and prick-balls, or with thick
needles thrust through their tongues, or being seated or stretched
on nail-points and rows of sword-edges. On such occasions, they
stick daggers into their arms and cheeks, and have been seen
carrying heavy pewter lamps, fastened by hooks thrust through
their arms.
This description could just as aptly
describe the practices of Chinese spirit-mediums in 20th century
Singapore. How can we explain the continued practice of these
rituals in a modern, technologically advanced, society like
Singapore? This article has two main aims. The first is to
document the ritual practices of spirit-mediums in modern-day
Singapore, the second is to examine why Chinese spirit-mediums
continue to enjoy widespread popularity in this country. In the
other article, we
analyse the Chinese ideas concerning the relationship between
power and knowledge through the study of Chinese spirit-medium
practices. The central argument is that spirit-mediums are seen by
Chinese as being sources of power. This power is linked to the
control of a body of sacred knowledge that is available only to
them. This knowledge, in a sense, allows the medium to mediate
between his clients and a spirit and so to manipulate spiritual
forces for human benefits.
Routine Rituals at FuYunTan
FuYunTan (a Taoist temple) holds regular consultations for
worshippers on Wednesdays and Fridays, as well as on the first and
fifteenth day of each lunar month. These consultations are held in
the evenings, although in cases of extreme illness special
consultations can be arranged at other times.
Wednesdays are generally reserved for the mediums of
ShangCaiTongZhi and DaShengFoZhu, Fridays for those of BaiWuChang
and HeiWuChang. It seems that each deity is believed to
specialized in a certain type of problem. ShangCaiTongZhi, for
example, is popular with worshippers who have business and
financial problems, as well as with those seeking to improve their
luck. DaShengFoZhu is always invoked by mediums performing the
KaiGuang
 rituals for clients who want to install a new deity
in their home and so bring it to the temple to be blessed. The
tangki uses a brush to dot the eyes of the deity with red ink or
blood. This serves to imbue the image with the power of the deity.
BaiWuChang and HeiWuChang are popular with worshippers having
health problems. As these deities are from hell, and so rank below
the deities from heaven, tangki do not call upon them during
kaiguang rituals.
The number of clients who visit the temple for consultation
varies. On some days there may be only a few; on others, hundreds.
On Wednesdays, when ShangCaiTongZhi and DaShengYe are said to be
present, there tend to be larger crowds than on Fridays, when
BaiWuChang
 and HeiWuChang
 hold court. According to my informants,
this is because ShangCaiTongZhi and DaShengYe are more powerful
deities and therefore more efficacious. BaiWuChang and HeiWuChang,
as deities of the Underworld, are considered less potent.
The consultation generally begin at 8 pm in the evening.
Assistants lay out the necessary ritual paraphernalia (swords,
prick-balls and charms) on a table facing the main altar. Included
are joss-sticks, a red paint brush, and wads of various types of
joss-paper. A chair is also placed before the main altar. Known as
the "dragon chair", it is carved with intricate motifs of dragons.
Incense papers are used to cushion the legs of the chair.
When all is ready, the spirit medium sits in the dragon chair,
with legs wide apart and head hung down. He begins a slow chant,
calling on the deity to possess him. After a few minutes, the
chant becomes louder. After about seven minutes, the medium begins
to gyrate his head, and his body starts to quiver and twitch. This
movement gradually becomes more violent so that, finally, the
medium has to be controlled by the assistants. Gradually he quiets
down, as he enters into a state of trance. Once in a trance, the
spirit-medium is ready to be consulted. Worshippers approach him
with their problems. Standing slightly behind him, they speak in a
low voice, often directed at the interpreter, whose task is to
translate the medium's words, often spoken in a language that is
highly stylized and not easily understood by the clients. The
medium analyses the client's problem and suggests the remedy. The
most common remedy is to provide the client with some slips of
yellow charm-paper, on which the medium has scribbled some
characters in red-ink, or else in blood. Clients are told either
to keep this charm-paper on their person, or else to burn it, mix
the ashes with water, and drink the concoction.
The kinds of problem brought to a medium are diverse and vary
according to which medium is being consulted. The most common
problems are those related to illnesses in the family, questions
about how to improve one's wealth, and how to change one's luck
and fate. There are some who seek the assistance of the
spirit-medium in determining auspicious dates for weddings and
funerals. Some case studies will be provided, as they reveal the
process by which the medium's powers are legitimated. The
popularity of a spirit-medium rests on his ability to explain and
solve the pragmatic, mundane problems of everyday life.
One case involved an Indian of the Sikh community. This man's son
as suffering from a recurring illness which, despite many visits
to regular medical practitioners, showed
no signs of improvement. In desperation the Silk consulted a
Chinese friend, who recommended a visit to the medium. The latter
prepared some charm-papers, which he instructed the man to mix as
a drink for the boy. After the concoction was administered a few
times, the boy made a full recovery. According to my informant,
the Sikh was so impressed that he converted to Taoism and is now a
regular worshipper at the temple.
In another case, a matron was having problems with the residents
of her old-age home. Whenever a new resident moved in, she said,
an old resident would die. Even though the matron has her own
religion, she approached the medium for assistance. The spirit
medium made a visit to the old-age home and diagnosed that there
were evil spirits haunting the place. He conducted a special
ritual to drive out these spirits. After that, the problem ceased.
In appreciation, the matron bought an image of a diety and placed
it in the temple.
The majority of people seeking the help of spirit mediums are
women. Their queries often relate to problems within the family
when, for example, a child is not doing well in school, a daughter
is falling in love with a boy who is unacceptable to the family,
etc.
Spirit-mediums do not advertise their services; the popularity of
a particular spirit-medium is spread by word of mouth. Thus a
medium who is deemed to be efficacious is very popular and his
reputation inevitably rests on his ability to solve the problems
brought to him by his clients.
Major Public Festivals
There are a few occasions each year when the temple sponsors a
public celebration. These are elaborate affairs, during which
large numbers of worshippers seek the services of the tangki.
FuYunTan celebrates six major festivals. These fall on the
birthdays of the various deities. The most important is the
celebration of the birthdate of YuHuangShangTi, the Jade Emperor,
which falls on the ninth day of the first month of the lunar
calendar. There are no images of YuHuangShangTi in the temple, nor
does this god possess any spirit-medium. However, as the Jade
Emperor is the preeminent deity in the Taoist pantheon, his
birthday is celebrated in all spirit-medium temple. They include
ShangCaiTongZhi, celebrated on the eighth day of the eighth lunar
month, DaShengFoZhu, on the eighteenth day of the eighth lunar
month, ZhongTangYuanShua and GuanYinNianNian on the nineteenth day
of the third and eleventh months respectively, and finally
BaiWuChang and HeiWuChang, celebrated on the eleventh day of the
twelfth lunar month. These celebrations are elaborate affairs,
each one lasting from two to three days. The following is a
description of the rituals performed during one of these public
festivals.
A week prior to the festival, invitations are sent to worshippers.
For this occasion, the deities are taken from their usual altars
and placed under a temporary canopy constructed outside the
temple. The ritual begins with an invitation to the gods to attend
the event. The preeminent god, YuHuangShangTi, is invited first,
followed by various gods of the temple, and any other
miscellaneous deities that may want to attend.
The altars to the gds are elaborately decorated. Food offerings
(including several roast pigs, chickens, ducks, fish, fruits and
sweetmeats) are placed before the images of the deities. Large
amount of joss-paper are burnt as a sacrifice.
Hundreds of worshippers are present for the celebration at
FuYunTan. Given the large number of clients, this occasion
provides an opportunity for the spirit-medium to demonstrate his
skills and power. Ritual self-flagellation, so often associated
with Chinese spirit-mediumship, often can be seen.
The spirit possession of the Tangki begins with assistants beating
drums and gongs. The tangki carries a whip, known as the fashan
 ,
literally the 'method cord'. It is about 12 feet long and has a
wooden handle carved in the shape of a snake. The whip, according
to an informant, is extremely potent and is used to clear the way
for the deity to possess the medium. It also serves to drive away
any evil spirits which may be lurking in the vicinity. The sound
of the gongs and drums signals the arrival of the spirits. The
medium sits in the dragon chair. Slowly his head begins to gyrate,
round and round. His body begins to shake. As his body movements
become faster, the gongs at the tangki's mouth and he begins to
take on the behavioral characteristics of the deity which is
believed to be possessing him. Finally, the possession reaches a
climax. The drums stop. The tangki settles down.
During these public celebrations, the tangki performs many feats
of self-immolation. For example, he uses a long sword and
repeatedly slashes his own back. Blood can be seen oozing from his
body. Other varieties of self-immolation include cutting the
tongue with a knife, piercing the cheeks with sharp needles,
piercing the body with long spears, and walking on fire or sharp
objects.
In more elaborate celebrations, a charcoal pit, ten feet long by
two feet wide, is constructed. The mediums of the temple, in a
state of trance, run across this pit of burning embers. At less
elaborate celebrations, this ritual consists of walking over, or
stepping on, a pile of burning joss-paper. Sometimes, the tangki
use a wad of burning joss-paper and joss-sticks to burn their own
bodies. Such feats do not case them any visible harm. These acts
of self-immolation are for the benefit of the clients of the
temple, indications of a tangki's ability to transcend natural
forces. They serve to legitimate the medium's power.
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