|
Power and Knowledge
The closest word to 'power' for the Chinese is li
 ,
or nengli
 ,
which can be translated as 'strength' or 'the ability to effect
change'. Another term that is associated with the concept of power
is ling
 or
'efficaciousness'. Chinese conceive of power as a force that can
permeate objects. The physical images of deities, ancestral
tablets, and charms can be sources of power if the spirits are
present in them. These objects can be imbued with power through
the kaiguang ritual. The spirit-medium dots the image of the deity
with blood, or else with red ink, signifying the entry of the
spirit into that object. After this, the image can be placed on an
altar, thus becoming an object of worship. Similarly, spirit-mediumship
is based on the belief that spiritual beings can, temporarily,
take possession of a human body. In this state, the medium is no
longer a person, but a personification of the spirit which posses
him. Thus, it is not usual to see a medium portraying the
behavioral patterns of the deity which is said to have possessed
him. For example, it can be observed that a man will take on a
famine role if he is possessed by GuanYin, or the role of an
imposing general, if possessed by GuangDiGong. When in a state of
trance, the power of the spirit is said actually to be in the
person.
Chinese believe that the powers of spiritual beings can be tapped
to further the interests of humans. Chinese spirits are powerful
beings, capable of conferring blessings as well as inflicting
punishments. Given the homology between natural and supernatural
worlds, this power transcends the boundaries of humans and
spirits. Many Chinese, for example, will not make a decision on
important matters, such as the location of a new business, the
time to establish a new home, or the choice of a marriage parnter,
until after the deities have been consulted through the services
of a tangki. People believe that the protection and blessing of
the spirits will greatly enhance their chances of success, a
person hopes to inspire the spirits to improve this luck. Many
Chinese will engage the services of spirit-mediums to perform
huanyun  ,
literally 'luck-changing' rituals if they feel that things are not
going well for them. In one instance, for example, after his
bazi
 had
been read by a spirit-medium, a man was told that he was fated to
live a short life and would die at the age of 49. To alleviate
this condition, the man paid a large sum of money for special
rituals to be enacted on his behalf. By doing this, it is said,
his life could be extended for an additional 30 years. Another
common practice to ensure the protection of the deity is to have a
child adopted as a 'godson' of the spirit. In one case, a young
boy had a history of illnesses. When the boy's mother consulted a
tangki, he told her that her son had a bad fate and suggested that
he be given as an adopted son to the deity, Guan Yin. After this
ritual had been performed, the boy, so it is claimed, regained his
health.
Power is transferrable according to Chinese belief. For example,
when a tangki uses his blood to write on a piece of yellow
charm-paper, he transforms he paper into a potent force. Many
traditional Chinese will carry such a charm-paper to prevent
misfortune. Others will place the paper in their car to prevent
accidents. When the charm-paper is mixed with water and drunk, it
is said to have the power to cure illnesses. A ritual that is
often performed by spirit-mediums is to imprint a seal of the
deity on the cloths of children. This seal supposedly protects the
child from harm. This ability to transfer power is also manifested
when, simply by holding his hands, an experienced tangki causes a
novice medium to go into trance.
It must be noted that Chinese do not believe that such power is
limited to their own gods. It is not unusual, for instance, for
Chinese to visit different temples to pray to different deities.
In fact, many Chinese see no contradiction in praying to GuanYin
one day, visiting a keramat (the grave of a Muslim holy man) the
next, and, on another, praying to the Virgin Mary at a Catholic
Church. There are also incidents where spirit-mediums are said to
be possessed by Jesus Christ, or by one or another Hindu deity. In
short, sundry spiritual beings: Jesus Christ, Mohammed, Buddha,
the Virgin Mary, etc, can be appropriated to serve the needs of
the worshippers. This is because all of them are believed to be
sources of power. In accord with the pragmatic nature of the
Chinese, any source of power may be tapped in order to effect a
desired change.
What is the source of the spirit-medium's power? The most obvious
source is the deity which is believed to possess him. When
possessed, the medium is a vessel for the spirit. The medium's own
soul is supposed to leave the body at this time. This notion of
the power of the spirit-medium as merely a substitute for the
power of the spirit has been documented by many studies (cf.
Elliot 1955:15; Wee 1977: 136; Ju 1983; Ackerman and Lee 1988:
123).
In this paper, I argue that a spirit medium is not merely a
passive receptacle; rather I suggest that part of his power rests
in his mastery of certain techniques and his control of knowledge
and rituals. Such mastery is demonstrated at many levels. The most
basic is the medium's control of his body. A spirit medium has to
keep his body clean and pure. Prior to possession, he should eat
only vegetarian food. Food items which are considered to be tu
 ,
poisonous, such as beef and seafood, especially should be avoided.
If a medium has ingested such 'poisonous' food, he must vomit to
purify his body. A period of fasting is necessary to prepare for
many rituals. Sexual intercourse also is considered impure; the
medium should abstain from sex a few days prior to spirit
possession. When a tangki is about to go into a trance, he has to
purify himself by waving three lighted joss-sticks over his head.
Moreover, he must actively avoid substances which are considered
to be polluting. It is said that a tangki cannot go into a trance
if there are menstruating women in the vicinity.
The spirit-medium also exercises control over his mind. Many
confided that, before they became mediums, they were impatient and
hot-tempered. One medium said that he was constantly getting into
fights and even had been to jail. After dedicating their lives to
the spirits, however, the mediums reported that their temperaments
had changed. In fact, training for mediumship is known as
Zuozhan  ,
which can be translated as 'sitting in mediumship', or 'regular
practice through meditation'. Part of this training requires
mastery of the self. The medium's learning to be patient and
exercising self-control is said to make it easier for the spirit
to enter his body.
This control of the body is linked to the ability to master the
natural forces of the universe. Thus rituals of self-immolation
with swords, spears, spiked iron-balls, and walking over fire do
not cause any visible pain or harm to the medium. This ability to
transcend natural forces provides, as noted above, both an
indication of the tangki's abilities, and a legitimating of his
powers in the eyes of the worshippers. The authenticity of his art
is vindicated also by the medium's ability to recall events at
which he was not present, to know the life histories of his
clients without them telling him, and even to foretell future
events.
Spirit mediums have control over the enactment of rituals. A new
medium is said to enter into the body of the art of the shenfa
 .
This is similar to what Eliade (1972:8) calls 'mastery of the
ecstatic technique'. Eliade maintains that 'shamanism always
remains an ecstatic technique at the disposal of a particular
elite and represents as it were, the mysticism of the particular
religion'. It is this knowledge of the rituals that separates the
tangki from his clients. The rituals are themselves a source of
power, from casting out demons to ensuring harmony within the
family.
Finally, the power of the tangki relates to his control of
knowledge or sacred texts. The utterings of a spirit medium in
trance are in a mystical language, often not understood by his
clients. As such they have to be translated by the tangki's
assistant. Just as the tangki is a mediator between the worlds of
spirit and man, so the interpreter mediates between the tangki and
his clients. The invocations and chants of a spirit-medium are
often written down, and the resultant text considered sacred.
Forbidden to the eyes of outsiders, such texts are passed from one
generation to another. The process of training to be a medium
requires the apprentice to memorize and recite such texts. Thus,
spirit-mediums have access to a knowledge of the sacred that is
inaccessible to the larger community. It is this access that not
only sets them apart, but opens up a source of power through which
they can serve their clients. This mastery over ritual performance
and sacred knowledge is clearly exemplified in the training of the
medium. Basically there are two ways to become a tangki. The first
way is to be 'caught' by a deity. Having possessed, or else go
into a trance without invocations or chanting. Most spirit mediums
who are 'caught' are believed to have light bazi, in other words
they have incomplete souls and are fated to die young. However,
being chosen by deities is thought to give them a chance to extend
their lives. Such people are said to have shengu
 ,
'the bones of the gods'.
The second way to acquire the art of spirit mediumship is through
one's own efforts. A prospective tangki must locate a master who
is willing to teach him the art. The novice has to take an oath of
allegiance before YuHuangShangTi, promising to abide by the code
of ethics of shenfa
 .
The period of apprenticeship varies from two to six years. The
training involves learning the art of writing charm-papers, as
well as whipping the fashen. According to my informants,
meditation and the writing of charm-papers are crucial. Meditation
allows the novice to purify his mind and so to attain a 'personal
feeling' of the spiritual world. It is also important to learn the
art of preparing charm-papers, since these are said not to be
efficacious if some important strokes are omitted. Finally the
novice has to learn the correct chants with which to invite the
deity to possess him.
Hierarchy in Spirit-mediumship
Chinese spirit-mediumship is a cultic manifestation of Chinese
religion with many varieties and variations. However we can divide
spirit-mediums into two groups: the soul-raisers and the shen-mediums.
This section of the article looks at the different types of
mediums and argues that a hierarchical structure exists within the
spirit-medium community, which rests on the perception of their
power and efficaciousness.
Soul-raisers are a category of mediums specializing in
communication with the dead. They claim to have the ability to
raise the soul of a dead person from the underworld. The
activities of soul-raisers have been documented by Elliot
(1955:136), Freedman (1979:167), and more recently, by Leong
(1984).
Freedman (1979:167) notes that "A minor branch of mediumship is
primarily concerned with communication with the dead. Here, the
purpose of consultation is not so much to solve problems or read
decisions as to learn about the welfare of the recently dead."
These specialists conduct seances on behalf of their clients.
During the seance, it is believed that the soul-raiser's own soul
descends into the underworld to look for that of the dead. The
latter, it is said, will then possess the soul-raiser when in
trance. The family members of the deceased can then question their
deceased relatives and enquire about his/her well-being. In
general, clients commission such seances to learn of the condition
of a deceased relative, or to resolve such family problems as
those concerning the inheritance of property.
There is a general consensus among spirit-mediums and worshippers
that shen-mediums are superior to soul-raisers. According to my
informants, while the former are possessed by a deity, the latter
are possessed by a ghost, or a low-ranking spirit. It is also
important to note that while shen-mediums generally hold their
activities in a temple, a public setting, most seances by
soul-raisers are private, family-based activities held within the
confines of the home and shrouded in secrecy (cf. Freedman
1979:311). The majority of soul-raisers are women, while shen-mediums
tend to be men.
Shen-mediums are ranked above soul-raisers because they are
possessed by deities from Heave. Within the community of shen-mediums,
however, there is a recognizable hierarchy, often based on the
status of the deity said to possess the medium. Although there may
be slight variations, according to Chinese belief, the highest
ranking god is YuHuangShangTi
 ,
the Jade Emperor. Next comes Sakyumuni Gautama, or Buddha.
According to my informants, neither of these deities possess
spirit-mediums, it being beneath their dignity to do so. The
highest-ranking deity said to posses a tangki is GuanYin, the
Goddess of Mercy. Other important possessing-deities are
GuangDiGong, the God of War, DaShenYe, the Great Saint, and
SanTaiZi, the Third Prince. The lowest ranking deities to possess
mediums are those of Hell, such as BaiWuChang
 and
HeiWuChang
 . The
belief among the worshippers is that spirit mediums who are
possessed by the more powerful than do the others. I myself
observed this situation during the course of my fieldwork. Thus,
for example, on those days when senior deities in the FuYunTan,
such as DaShengFoZhu, are said to be present, there were always
large numbers of clients, up to 120 worshippers, waiting to
consult the medium. On days when BaiWuChang was in session, on the
other hand, the crowd was visibly smaller.
In addition to the rank of possessing deity, hierarchy among
mediums is also based on worshippers' evaluation of their
abilities. A criterion often used is the length of time it takes
for the medium to become possessed. Mediums who require a long
time, up to an hour, are considered to be inferior. They are
sometimes derogatorily described as "becoming mediums in order to
earn a living". Most tangki take about ten minutes to half-an-hour
to become possessed.
The status of the tangki is also linked to his ability to control
the spirits. Novice mediums, it is sad, often do not have any
choice as to when they get possessed; but more experienced mediums
can call up the deities on specific days. Similarly, mediums who
have better control of themselves while in a state of trance are
held in higher regard than those who are completely controlled by
the spirit and, as such, are unaware of events around them. More
experienced mediums are able to retain consciousness while being
possessed; younger mediums are expected to be in a state of trance
(cf. Wee 1977:199). Put simply, a medium who has the ability to
control a deity by summoning him at will is regarded as more
powerful than one who has no such control when he goes into a
trance.
Ju (1983) describes an interesting sectarian branch of
spirit-mediums known as Xianfa
 .
Practitioners of Xianfa claim that theirs is the preeminent form
of spirit-mediumship, different from the art practised by the
tangki and soul-raisers. They myth of Xianfa originated in China,
where a highly intelligent man is said to have met the 'five
mystic masters', each a proponent of the 'five mystical arts'.
These are, in descending order, tianfa
 ,
or the Heaven, fofa
 ,
the art of Buddha, daofa
 ,
the art of the way, leifa
 ,
the art of lighting, and shenfa
,
the art of the spirits. Each Master shared his specialized
knowledge with him. He then merged the five forms to create a
superior form called Xianfa. Thus, Xianfa is preeminent in the
hierarchy of mystical powers, superseding the rest in divine
potency (Ju 1983: 15-17).
In line with the larger argument of this article, it is
interesting to note that Xianfa's claim to superiority seems to
rest on its access to a body of sacred knowledge. For example,
Xianfa proponents in general do not go into trance when possessed
by a deity; rather, they are conscious of their surroundings.
There is no dramatic spirit-possession, with the beating of gongs
and drums. Instead, the medium enters the state of possession
through meditation.
Practitioners of Xianfa also claim, that, unlike in shenfa (the
art practised by spirit-mediums), a person cannot acquire Xianfa
by involuntarily displaying signs of spirit possession, nor can he
be 'caught' by the spirits. To them, the art of Xianfa can be
acquired only through a process of conscious training. Anyone
wanting to be a Xianfa medium must locate a master who is willing
to pass on the knowledge to him. A new disciple must undergo an
initiation ritual of purification and attend regular training
sessions. Whether Xianfa specialists are superior to other tangki,
or merely another variant of spirit mediumship, is a moot point.
What is interesting is theri claim to superiority resting on
knowledge of scriptures and control of rituals.
Conclusion
Chinese spirit-mediums continue to attract a large clientele in
modern Singapore society. At major festivals thousands flock to
temples to consult the spirit-mediums and present offerings in
appreciation of benefits they believe to derive from the deities.
As no official statistics are kept, it is impossible to know
exactly how many mediums there are in Singapore. My own fieldwork
observations give no indication that they are on the decline. How
can we explain the continued persistence of Chinese spirit
mediumship in such a modern social milieu as Singapore?
It can be argued that the popularity of Chinese spirit-mediums
rests on the power they have to deal with problems of daily life.
The belief system of Chinese religion is ego-centered. Chinese
religion is human-centered rather than spirit-centered. It is from
the human standpoint that the entire cosmos is viewed. Religion is
primarily concerned with solving the problems of human existence
and humans are the key religious figures acting upon the rest of
the cosmos (cf. Wee 1977:18).
I suggest that ritual performances by Chinese in Singapore are
centered on the individual and his immediate family. Singaporean
Chinese enact rituals to serve calculated self-interests. The
presentation of elaborate sacrifices to the deities and the
appeasement of ancestors and ghosts are part of an effort to
improve the ritual sponsor's lot in this life. This can be seen in
the very instrumental quality of the rituals, as well as in the
type of problems brought to the attention of the spirit-medium:
the curing of illnesses, the expulsion of evil spirits, the
acquisition of wealth and success, the improvement of children's
educational abilities, and the change of fate. Chinese
supernatural beings, whether gods, ancestors, or ghosts, have dual
natures. If mistreated they are capable of causing harm to man, if
correctly managed, of conferring good fortune. Thus the proper
treatment of the spirits, by spending lavishly supernatural beings
ensures a reciprocal response. With their specialized knowledge
and potency, Chinese spirit-mediums mediate between men and
spirits, thus guaranteeing, so it is believed, benefits for those
who sponsor their ritual acts.
References
ACKERMAN, Susan, and Rayomond Lee, 1988, Heaven in Transition.
Honolulu, University of Hawaii Press.
DE GROOT, 1892-1910, The Religious System of China. Leiden: E.J.
Brill. 6 Volumes.
ELIADE, Mircea, 1970, Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy.
London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
ELLIOT, Alan, 1955, Chinese Spirit Medium Cults in Singapore.
London: The Athlone Press.
FREEDMAN, Maurice, 1979, The Study of Chinese Society: Essays by
Maurice Freedman. Standard University Press.
JU Shi Huey, 1983, Chinese Spirit-Mediums in Singapore: An
Ethnographic Study. Southeast Asian Ethnography 2:3-48
LEONG Vicki, 1984, The Seance: The Social Function of
Communication with the Dead in Chinese Spirit Mediumship. Academic
Exercise, NUS
WEE, Vivienne, 1977, Religion and Ritual among the Chinese in
Singapore: An Ethnographic Study, MSc thesis, NUS
|
